CDGFr
Nomenclature of Surface Syntactic Dependencies

Alexander Dikovsky

LINA CNRS UMR 6241, Université de Nantes

Verbal Dependencies

Nominal dependencies

Prepositional Dependencies

Group PREPOS of prepositional dependencies
   Projective CASE PREPOSITIONAL dependencies prepos-C
   Projective AGENTIVE PREPOSITIONAL dependency prepos-A
   Projective SELECTIVE PREPOSITIONAL dependency prepos-sel

Aggregation Dependencies

Group AGGR of aggregation dependencies
Projective AGGREGATION dependencies X_aggr
Non-projective AGGREGATION dependency aggr

Expletive and Emphatic Dependencies

Group EXPLET of expletive dependencies
   Projective EXPLETIVE (parenthetical) dependency explet
   Non-projective EXPLETIVE (parenthetical) dependency explet
Group EMPHAT of emphatic dependencies
   Projective EMPHATIC dependency emphat
   Projective INTERROGATIVE-EMPHATIC dependency qu-emphat
   Projective JUNCTION-EMPHATIC dependency junc-emphat

Junction and Punctuation Dependencies

Group JUNC of junction dependencies
   Projective VERB JUNCTION dependency coord
   Projective NONVERBAL JUNCTION dependency junc
   Projective JUNCTION SPECIFIER dependency junc-spec
   Projective AGGREGATION-JUNCTIVE dependency aggr-conj
   Projective CITATION JUNCTIVE dependency cit
Group PUNCT of punctuation dependencies

Special dependencies

GROUP PREFIXA of prefix-attributive dependencies
Projective PREFIX-ATTRIBUTIVE dependency pre-attr
GROUP DEICT of deictive dependencies
Projective DEICTIC Dependency deict

Short Introduction

This Document presents the nomenclature of surface syntactic dependencies of French used in the Categorial Dependency Grammar of French (CDGFr, version 3.4) developed in the NLP group (TALN) of LINA. CDGFr is destined for the linguists developing their own Dependency Tree Banks (DTB) of French or experimenting with the existing CDG and DTB of French.

To read this Document, it is highly recommended to become familiar with the basic ideas of dependency syntax (we recommend the book [5] which presents the fundamentals of the linguistic theory of dependencies). The main notions, terms and facts concerning the Categorial Dependency Grammars (CDG) may be found in the recent paper [3]. In this paper one will also find a detailed description of CDGFr and of the method used for its construction. In the paper [1] is described the integrated environment CDG Lab, the advanced instrument of development of CDG and of French corpora. A mathematical introduction to CDG may be found in [2].

In this nomenclature, the dependencies are distributed over about 30 groups originating from the main (language non-specific) semantic dependencies. The groups are subdivided into kinds of (language specific) kindred dependencies. Then in every kind are presented all projective dependencies of this kind and all non-projective dependencies of the kind, if any. CDGFr numbers about 50 dependency kinds. 13 of them include non-projective dependencies. In this Document, all dependency kinds are illustrated by dependency structures (DS) generated by CDGFr.

As a rule, the non-projective dependencies correspond to the analogous projective dependencies, and for the most part, they also have an anchor (in this case, the host word H is also indicated). For instance, ↖Agent and ↙Agent are respectively the positive and the negative non-projective dependencies corresponding to the projective dependency Agent. #(↙Agent) is the anchor of the negative dependency ↙Agent. Its host word H is the main (possibly auxiliary) verb; #(↙Agent) is anchored immediately on its left. The non-projective dependencies, as well as the corresponding anchor dependencies, are never iterated. In the surface DS below, the projective dependencies are represented by continuous arcs, the non-projective dependencies are represented by dashed arcs and the anchor dependences are displayed below the sentence. All these DS are constructed by the Parser of the CDG Lab.

All dependency definitions have the following standard format: they include the dependency name, the prototypical governor G and the prototypical dependent (subordinate) D. The definitions of non-projective dependencies also include the prototypical host word H.

In papers [4] and [6] one may find different nomenclatures of surface syntactic dependencies of French.

Notation

In the descriptions of dependencies below we use the following notation:
G denotes the governor, D denotes the subordinate (i.e. immediately dependent) and H denotes the host word for an anchor of a non-projective dependency.

General remark: In French, the pronouns found in verb argument positions may have one of the cases: a (accusative), d (dative), g (genitive), l (locative) and o (oblique)(We don't consider the partitive case. At that, the partitive is marked for with a special determiner dependency det-p (see below).). Below we say that a verb complement is in the case C if it may be replaced by a pronoun in this case.

When a verb v (in a finite or infinite form) has a dependency of the form dep-C or dep-C1-C2, this means that one or, respectively, two its complements in the corresponding cases is pronominalized and fronted (converted into a clitic in the same case), or topicalized and not pronominalized. Rather often this dependency is non-projective. In such cases v is subordinate to a verb v0 separating it from the displaced complements, and v0 serves as the host word for the anchor of this non-projective dependency.

Verbal Dependencies

Group PRED

Projective PREDICATIVE dependency pred

G is a verb and D is its (surface syntactic) subject (a noun, a pronoun, a verb in infinitive, etc.).

In French, the neutral position of the subject D is on the left of G (i.e. in pre-position) because the pre-position is topicalized in French. De-topicalized subjects in post-position are represented by pronouns, often attached to the verb (see below). On the other hand, a topicalized and focused subject may be found in post-position with respect to the main verb. In this case, it is expressed by a noun (see Figure 1).

**Figure 1**: **pred**: G= *était*, D= *Verbe*

In Figure 2 is shown a typical example of a subject in pre-position.

**Figure 2**: **pred**: G= *tenait*, D= *Marie*

As a rule, the syntactic subject subordinate to the main verb through dependency pred coincides with the semantic subject of the sentence (see Figure 2). But syntactic subjects may also be different from the semantic one. (cf. the impersonal subject il shown in Figure 3).

In interrogative sentences the subject (expressed by a pronoun) may be attached to the main verb from the right (see Figure 4). Cf. this case with that of a focused subject in post-position as in Figure 1.

**Figure 4**: **pred**: G= *veux*, D= *-tu*

This order inversion is also possible in the indicative, especially in the exclamatory sentences (see Figure 5).

**Figure 5**: **pred**: G= *veux*, D= *-tu*

A verb in infinitive may also be the subject (see Figure 6).

**Figure 6**: **pred**: G= *est*, D= *fumer*

When the subject is an aggregate of names, it is the first of them which is dependent through pred (see Figure 7).

**Figure 7**: **pred**: G= *ont*, D= *Jean*

Group AGENT

Projective AGENTIVE dependency agent

Case 1: G is a past participle and D is one of the prepositions de (d', des, du) or par (de is used in the case where the subject doesn't undergo the action expressed by the participle). The case of D= par is illustrated by the Figure 8).

**Figure 8**: **agent**: G=*délogées*, D=*par*

The case of D= de may be seen below in Figure 146 (G= suivi, D= de).

Case 2: G is a verb in infinitive subordinate to the past participle of a light verb and D= par (see Figure 9).

**Figure 9**: **agent**: G=*déloger*, D=*par*

Non-projective AGENTIVE dependency agent

G is a past participle, D is one of the prepositions de (d', des, du) or par in pre-position with respect to the main auxiliary verb, which also serves as the host word H. An example of this dependency is shown in Figure 10. See also Figure 34 (G= privé, D= par, H= a).

**Figure 10**: Non-projective **agent**: G= *volé*, D= *par*, H= a

Group OBJ of objective dependencies

Projective OBJECTIVE dependencies C-obj

In these dependencies C-obj, C is one of the cases: a, d, g, l and o. G is a verb, but sometimes also a noun, an adjective or an adverb, and D is a preposition in the case C introducing a complement of G or the complement itself. See Figure 2 (a-obj: G= tenait, D= joujou).

Another example is shown in Figure 11, where a di-transitive verb has a direct object in accusative case (a-obj) and an indirect object in dative case (d-obj).

**Figure 11**: **a-obj**: G= *demande*, D= *pomme*; **d-obj**: G= *demande*, D= à

In Figure 12 is shown a verb with an indirect object in dative case (d-obj).

**Figure 12**: **d-obj**: G= *prête*, D= à

Figure 13 shows a transitive verb subordinating through a-obj its direct object with partitive semantics (marked with the partitive article de la).

**Figure 13**: **a-obj**: G= a, D= *pêche*

In Figure 14 is shown a verb with an object in genitive case (g-obj).

**Figure 14**: **g-obj**: G= *parle*, D= de

Figure 15 shows a verb with a direct object in accusative case and its complement, which is a noun with an argument in genitive case (g-obj).

**Figure 15**: **g-obj**: G= *peur*, D= de

Figure 16 shows a verb with an object in locative case (l-obj).

**Figure 16**: **l-obj**: G= *trouve*, D= au

A di-transitive verb with a direct object in accusative case and an indirect object in oblique case (o-obj) may be seen in Figure 17.

**Figure 17**: **o-obj**: G= *braque*, D= *sur*

One more example of oblique object dependency is shown in Figure 18.

**Figure 18**: **o-obj**: G= *rêve*, D= en

Projective OBJECTIVE dependency a-obj-g

Case 1: G is a verb (e.g. avoir), D is its nominal complement (e.g. besoin) whose genitive case complement is pronominalized/topicalized and fronted. This case is shown in Figure 19.

**Figure 19**: **a-obj-g**: G= *avait*, D= *besoin*

Case 2: G is a past participle dependent on the auxiliary verb (avoir) through dependency aux-g, D is its nominal complement (e.g. besoin) whose genitive case complement is pronominalized/topicalized and fronted. This case is shown in Figure 20.

**Figure 20**: **a-obj-g**: G= eu, D= *peur*

Projective ∀-OBJECTIVE dependency qa-obj

G is a verb in an infinite form (e.g. past participle, infinitive), D is one of the universal quantification pronouns (tout, rien, nul) in pre-position with respect to G. An example of this dependency is given in Figure 21.

**Figure 21**: **qa-obj**: G= *oublié*, D= *tout*

Non-projective OBJECTIVE dependencies C-obj

G is a verb, a noun, an adjective or an adverb with a C-case argument, and D is the topicalized complement of D in pre-position to the main verb. A typical example of such non-projective dependency in an interrogative sentence is shown in Figure 22.

**Figure 22**: Non-projective **g-obj**: G= *air*, D= de, H= *avait*

In Figure 23 is shown a non-projective objective dependency in a clause.

**Figure 23**: Non-projective **g-obj**: G= *air*, D= de, H= *avait*

Group CLIT of clitic dependencies

Projective CLITIC dependencies clit-C-obj

In these dependencies, C is one of the cases a, d, g, l. G is a verb or a noun with an argument in the case C and D is its pronominalized fronted complement (a clitic) in the case C. For the dative clitics there are two variants: clit-3d-obj (for the 3d person), and clit-d-obj (for the 1st and the 2d person). One may see a dative case clitic and also an accusative case clitic in Figure 24.

**Figure 24**: **clit-a-obj**: G= *donnera*, D= la; **clit-d-obj**: G= *donnera*, D= *vous*

Figure 25 shows a genitive case clitic.

**Figure 25**: **clit-g-obj**: G= *méfier*, D= en

A locative case clitic is shown in Figure 26.

**Figure 26**: **clit-l-obj**: G= *irez*, D= y

Projective NULL CLITIC dependency 0-clit-g

G is a verb, D is the null clitic en in the genitive case. An example of this dependency is given in Figure 27.

**Figure 27**: **0-clit-g**: G= *sommes*, D= en

Non-projective NULL CLITIC dependency 0-clit-g

G is one of the verbs used only with a reflexive pronoun and with the null clitic en (e.g. s'en vouloir, s'en faire, etc.), D is the null clitic en in the genitive case. An example of this dependency is shown in Figure 28.

**Figure 28**: **0-clit-g**: G= *voulu*, D= en

Non-projective CLITIC dependencies clit-C-obj

G is a verb/noun/adjective, D is a clitic: a pronominalized fronted complement of G in pre-position to the main verb which serves as the host word H. There are many examples of structures with these dependencies: Figure 31 (clit-a-obj, G= lavées, D= les, H= est), Figure 32 (clit-g-obj, G= débarassé, D= en, H= être), Figure 33 (clit-a-obj, clit-3d-obj, G= refusée, D1= la, D2= lui, H= a), Figure 34 (clit-a-obj, G= privé, D= en, H= a), Figure 35 (clit-g-obj, G= parlé, D= en, H= a), Figure 37 (clit-g-obj, G= fier, D= en, H= est), Figure 47 (clit-a-obj, G= acheté, D= l', H= a), Figure 74 (clit-g-obj, G= sûr, D= en, H= être), Figure 132 (clit-a-obj, G= rencontrée, D= l', H= a), Figure 99 (clit-a-obj, G= beaucoup, D= en, H= avait).

One more example may be seen in Figure 29.

**Figure 29**: **clit-copul**: G= *été*, D= l', H= a

Group AUX of auxiliary dependencies

Projective AUXILIARY dependency aux

G is an auxiliary verb (avoir or être) and D is a past participle.

**Figure 30**: **aux** G= a, D= *écrites*

In Figure 30 is shown the auxiliary verb avoir governing a past participle and in Figure 9 the auxiliary verb être: (aux: G= sont, D= fait).

Projective AUXILIARY dependencies aux-C, aux-C1-C2, aux-C-A

These dependencies are parametrized by the cases C1, C2 of pre-verbal clitics (one case marker per clitic), or by fronted complements in the corresponding cases, or by an agent.

Case 1: G is an auxiliary verb (avoir or être) and D is a past participle with a pronominalized/topicalized complement in case C or with two pronominalized/topicalized complements in cases C1, C2. In this case, G=H, i.e. the auxiliary verb serves as the host word for the fronted complements/agents (see the examples in Subsections Non-projective C-obj, Non-projective clit-C-obj).

**Figure 31**: **aux-a**: G= *est*, D= *lavées*

In Figure 31 one may see dependency aux-a which is due to the accusative case clitic les anchored on the auxiliary verb, and in Figure 32 it is the genitive case clitic en which determines the parameter g in the auxiliary dependency aux-g.

**Figure 32**: **aux-g**: *G=H=* *être*, D= *débarrassé*

Figure 33 shows dependency aux-a-d due to the combination of accusative and dative case clitics.

**Figure 33**: **aux-a-d**: *G=H=* a, D= *refusée*

The dependency aux-g-A in Figure 34 is caused by the combination of the anchored genitive case clitic en and the topicalized agent phrase par qui.

In Figure 35 the combination of a dative case and the genitive case clitics is in the origin of the two dependencies aux-d-g. At the same time, this pair of dependencies illustrates the Case 2 below.

**Figure 34**: **aux-g-A**: *G=H=* a, D= *été*

Case 2: G is an auxiliary verb (avoir or être) subordinate through dependency aux-C1-C2 and D is another past participle which inherits these parameters. This kind of constructions, called `temps surcomposé', is disused in the metropolitan French, but is grammatical e.g. in Quebec and in Switzerland.

**Figure 35**: **aux-d-g**: *G=H=* eu, D= *parlé*

Group COPUL of copulative dependencies

Projective COPULATIVE dependencies n_copul, a_copul, c_copul

G is a copulative verb (être, devenir, etc.). Semantics of copulative verbs V depends on the kind X of copulative dependency X_copul (X being n, a or c)
n_copul: D is a dependent noun or pronoun. In this case, G expresses the ``kind-of'' relation: the subject of G is of kind D.
c_copul: D is a dependent adverb or a preposition, governing a circumstantial prepositional phrase. In this case, the subject of G expresses a fact or a situation and G states that this fact / situation has the circumstance D.
a_copul: D is a dependent adjective or past participle. In this case, G expresses the fact that its subject has the property D.
a_copul-C: a copulative dependency parametrized by the case C (C is p, d, g or l) of a pre-verbal clitic in case C. G is a copulative verb, D is a dependent word (past participle, noun, adjective) with a pronominalized complement in case C.
a_copul-C-A: as in the preceding case, it is a copulative dependency parametrized by the case C of a pre-verbal clitic in case C. G is a copulative verb, D is a dependent word (usually, a past participle) with a pronominalized complement in case C. Besides this, D is in passive voice and its agent (introduced by the preposition par) is topicalized and occurs in pre-position with respect to G.

**Figure 36**: **c_copul**: G= *était*, D= au; **a_copul**: G= *était*, D= *tourné*; **n_copul**: G= *était*, D= *Dieu*

n_copul, a_copul and c_copul are illustrated by Figure 36 and one of the parametrized copular dependencies a_copul-g is illustrated by Figure 37.

**Figure 37**: **a_copul-g**: *G=H=* *est*, D= *fier*

Projective COPULATIVE dependency clit-copul

D is the clitic le, l' which is the pronominalized complement of the copula G. This dependency is illustrated by Figure 38.

**Figure 38**: **clit-copul**: G= *sont*, D= le

Group INF of infinitive dependencies

Projective PREPOSITIONAL INFINITIVE dependency pre-inf

G is a verb, a deverbal noun, an adjective or an adverb and D is one of prepositions de, à, pour, sans, etc. governing a verb in infinitive.

**Figure 39**: **pre-inf**: G= *aide*, D= à

Figure 39 shows the case where the subordinate preposition is à and Figure 40 shows the subordinate de.

**Figure 40**: **pre-inf**: G= *inutile*, D= de

Another example of the subordinate de is shown in Figure 41.

**Figure 41**: **pre-inf**: G= *presse*, D= de

Projective INFINITIVE dependency inf

Case 1: G is one of prepositions de, à, pour, sans, etc. and D is a verb in infinitive: see the examples above and also the two in Figure 42 and Figure 43.

**Figure 42**: **inf**: G= à, D= *oublier*

The examples in Figure 39 and Figure 41 show the typical cases where the verbs govern a subordinate verb in infinitive through the prepositions à and de. Examples in Figures 42 and 43 show that the word governing such prepositions may be not only verbs, but also nouns and adjectives.

**Figure 43**: **inf**: G= à, D= *comprendre*

Case 2: G is a light verb and D is a verb in infinitive (see Figure 44).

**Figure 44**: **inf**: G= *laisse*, D= *faire*

Projective INFINITIVE dependencies inf-C, inf-C1-C2, inf-A, inf-C-A

These dependencies are parametrized by the cases C1, C2 of pre-verbal clitics and of fronted complements/agent. G is a light verb or one of prepositions de, à, pour, sans, etc., D is a verb in infinitive; G=H. Two such cases are shown in Figure 45 and Figure 46.

**Figure 45**: **inf-a**: G= *fait*, D= *manger*

**Figure 46**: **inf-a-d**: G= *fait*, D= *donner*

Group COORDV of iterated verbal coordinative dependencies

Projective VERBAL COORDINATIVE dependencies coordv, coordpz, coordi

coordv: G is a finite verb, D is a coordinated finite verb. We have seen this dependency in Figure 36 (G= était, D1= était, D2= était).

coordpz: G is a past participle, D: a coordinated past participle (see Figure 47).

**Figure 47**: **coordpz**: G= a, *D1=* *cassé*, *D2=* *fait*

coordi: G is a verb in infinitive, D: a coordinated verb in infinitive (see Figure 48).

**Figure 48**: **coordi**: G= *choisir*, *D1=* *planter*, *D2=* *arroser*

Group GER of gerundive dependencies

Projective GERUNDIVE dependency dep-ger

G is the particle en, D is a dependent present participle. A typical example of this dependency is shown in Figure 49.

**Figure 49**: **dep-ger**: G= en, D= *étant*

See also Figure 21: G= en, D= quittant.

Group NEG of negative dependencies

The negation in French consists of two parts: the (main) categorematic part (pas, plus, jamais, que, aucun etc.) and the syncategorematic part ne. We distinguish the restrictive verbal negation with the categorematic part que, aucun, etc. and the pure verbal negation with the categorematic part other than que, aucun, etc. because the latter is related through dependencies only with the negated verb, whereas the former is related not only with the verb, but also with one of its complements. This is a purely syntactic opposition because semantically the restrictive verbal negation often has a positive reading.

As a rule, the categorematic part of the pure negation is found in post-position with respect to the negated verb, but it may also be found in pre-position, for instance, with verbs in infinitive (but not only). As to the restrictive negation, its categorematic part in post-position is represented by restrictive pronouns, adverbs and adjectives que, aucun, aucune, etc. In pre-position, the categorematic part of this negation may be represented by various adverbs, pronouns and particles: aucun, jamais, ni, nul, pas, personne, plus, etc. The dependency relating the two parts of negation is most often non-projective, but when the categorematic part is in pre-position, this dependency may be projective.

Projective NEGATIVE dependencies neg, compos-neg, neg-emphat

neg: G is a verb, D is the categorematic part of negation. This dependency is used only for the pure negation. D may precede or follow G.

compos-neg. This dependency is used only for the pure negation in pre-position with respect to the verb. There are three cases:
Case 1: Both parts of negation are present. In this case, G is the categorematic part of negation, D is its syncategorematic part ne.
Case 2: Only the categorematic part is present. In this case, G is the verb in infinitive. D is the categorematic part of negation.
Case 3: Only the syncategorematic part ne is present. In this case, the verb is in a finite form, its subject is represented by a negative pronoun (e.g. personne), G is this pronoun and D is the syncategorematic part ne.

neg-emphat: G is the categorematic part of negation. D is an adverb or a negative particle: aucun, jamais, personne, plus, rien, etc. which strengthens the negation.

Figure 50 illustrates the case 1. Both dependencies neg and compos-neg are present. In this example, the verb is in infinitive.

**Figure 50**: **neg**: G= *oublier*, D= *pas*; **compos-neg**: G= *pas*, D= ne

Another example of case 1 is shown in Figure 51. Here the negated verb is in a finite form. In this case, the order of the the categorematic and syncategorematic parts is inverse to that when the verb is in infinitive.

**Figure 51**: **neg**: G= *peut*, D= *nul*; **compos-neg**: G= *nul*, D= ne

In Figure 52 is shown dependency neg-emphat strengthening the pure negation in pre-position.

**Figure 52**: **neg**: G= *peut*, D= *rien*; **compos-neg**: G= *rien*, D= ne

Figure 53 illustrates the case 2. The syncategorematic part ne of negation is omitted (which is rather frequently the case in oral speech).

**Figure 53**: **neg**: G= *oublier*, D= *pas*

In Figure 54 the categorematic part of pure negation in pre-position is represented by a negative pronoun which is not interpreted as the verb's subject.

**Figure 54**: **neg**: G= *est*, D= *personne*; **compos-neg**: G= *personne*, D= n'

Nevertheless, in similar constructions the negative pronoun may also be naturally subordinate through dependency pred (see case 3). This case is illustrated by Figure 55.

**Figure 55**: **pred**: G= *peut*, D= *personne*; **compos-neg**: G= *personne*, D= ne

Non-projective NEGATIVE dependencies compos-neg, restr-neg

compos-neg: Case 1: In this case G is the categorematic part of negation (pas, plus, jamais, aucun etc.), D is its syncategorematic part ne) with the head type #(↙compos-neg). That is, in this case the dependency is oriented from right to left. It is anchored on the left of the main verb H in the following position:
FrontedComplement < D < Reflexive < Clitics < H. Several examples of this dependency are shown in Figure 19 (G= plus, D= n'; neg: G1= avait, D1= plus: H= avait), Figure 33 (G= pas, D= ne; neg: G1= a, D1= pas: H= a), Figure 106 (G= jamais, D= n'; H= a) and in Figure 123 (G= jamais, D= n'; neg: G1= a, D1= jamais: H= a). In Figure 56 is shown the case where G is an adverb expressing a universal quantifier.

**Figure 56**: **compos-neg**: G= *personne*, D= ne

A special case, where this dependency has a categorematic part represented by ni ... ni ... mais ... aggregate is shown in Figure 57.

**Figure 57**: **compos-neg**: G= ni, D= n', H= *est*

Case 2: In this case, the dependency is oriented from left to right. G= jamais and D is the syncategorematic part. An example of this dependency is shown in Figure 58.

**Figure 58**: **compos-neg**: G= *jamais*, D= ne

restr-neg. Case 1: The categorematic part G is found in the post-position with respect to the negated verb. In this case, G is a restrictive adverb, adjective or pronoun que, aucun (aucune, etc.), the syncategorematic part D is the particle ne with the head type #(↙restr-neg). It is anchored on the left of the main verb H in the same position as compos-neg.
Two examples of this dependency are shown in Figure 110 (G= qu', D= n', H= offre) and in Figure 111 (G= que, D= n', H= a). In Figure 59 is shown an example where G= aucun.

**Figure 59**: **restr-neg**: G= *aucun*, D= ne

A similar example, this time with a rare colloquial form of restrictive negation que dalle, is shown in Figure 60.

**Figure 60**: **restr-neg**: G= *que*, D= n'

Case 2: The categorematic part G found in pre-position with respect to the negated verb. In this case, G is an adverb, a pronoun or a particle with a restrictive meaning: pas, plus, jamais, ni, etc., and D is as in {\sf Case 1}. A typical example of this negation is shown in Figure 61.

**Figure 61**: **restr-neg**: G= *aucun*, D= n'

A more special case, where this dependency has the categorematic part represented by ni ... ni ... aggregate, is shown in Figure 62.

**Figure 62**: **restr-neg**: G= ni, D= ne

In order to better distinguish between the pure and the restrictive negations, let us compare three lexically similar DS.

In Figure 56 is shown an example of non-projective pure negation ne ... personne.

In Figure 63 is shown an example of non-projective pure negation ne ... plus.

**Figure 63**: **compos-neg**: G= *plus*, D= ne; **neg**: *G1=* *vois*, *D1=* *plus*

Finally, in Figure 64 is shown an example of non-projective restrictive negation ne ... aucune.

**Figure 64**: **restr-neg**: G= *aucune*, D= ne

Group REFLEX of reflexive dependencies

Projective REFLEXIVE dependency reflex

G is a reflexive verb, D is a reflexive pronoun in pre- or post-position with respect to G. In Figures 65, 67 and 68 the reflexive pronoun se is in pre-position with respect to the main verb.

**Figure 65**: **reflex**: G= *cachait*, D= se

In Figure 66 the reflexive pronoun toi is in post-position.

**Figure 66**: **reflex**: G= *méfie*, D= *-toi*

When a reflexive pronoun is in pre-position with respect to the main verb, it may be separated from it by one or two clitics (see Figure 67).

**Figure 67**: **reflex**: G= *méfie*, D= s'

Some reflexive verbs incorporate disjoint prefix en (cf. s'en aller, s'en vouloir, etc.). For these verbs we treat the prefix as a part of a composite reflexive pronoun. In Figure 69 such composite pronoun m'en is in pre-position.

**Figure 68**: **reflex**: G= *endort*, D= s'

**Figure 69**: **reflex**: G= *veux*, D= *m'en*

In Figure 70 the composite pronoun vous-en is in post-position.

**Figure 70**: **reflex**: G= *allez*, D= *-vous-en*

Non-projective REFLEXIVE dependency reflex

G is is a reflexive verb, D is a reflexive pronoun with the head type #(↙reflex) in pre-position with respect to G, H is the main auxiliary or light verb separating G and D. D is anchored immediately on the left of H.
Several examples of this dependency are shown above: Figure 9 (G= fait, D= se, H= sont), Figure 31 (G= lavées, D= se, H= est), Figure 32 (G= débarassé, D= vous, H= être).

Group CIRC of circumstantial dependencies

Projective CIRCUMSTANTIAL dependency circ

G is a verb, an adjective or an adverb, D is a dependent circumstantial, e.g. an adverb, a preposition introducing a circumstance of time/location/manner, etc. See Figure 2 (G= tenait, D= fort), Figure 47 (G1= a, D1= hier; G2= cassé, D2= soir; G3= fait, D3= aujourd'hui), Figure 49 (G= trouver, D= en), Figure 65 (G= cachait, D= dans), Figure 87 (G= livre, D= en).

Group CLAUS of clausal dependencies

Projective CLAUSAL dependency claus

D is always the main verb of a clause. As it concerns G, there are two cases.
Case 1: In this most usual case, G is a conjunction or a relative pronoun. In Figure 71 the conjunction que governs the head verb viendra of the clause through dependency claus.

**Figure 71**: **claus**: G= *qu'*, D= *viendra*

In Figure 72 the relative pronoun qui governs through dependency claus the head auxiliary verb a of the clause and references its elided subject.

**Figure 72**: **claus**: G= *qui*, D= a

In Figure 73 the relative pronoun dont governs through dependency claus the head verb parles of the clause and references its elided genitive case complement.

**Figure 73**: **claus**: G= *dont*, D= *parles*

See also Figure 149 (claus: G1= qui, D1= grin\c{caient}, G2= qui, D2= coulait).

Case 2: For some verbs (of belief, of perception, etc.) it is possible that G is the main verb of the main clause. This case may be seen in Figure 23 (G= dis, D= avait) and in Figure 34 (G= sais, D= a).

Group INTERROG of interrogative dependencies

Projective INTERROGATIVE dependency interrog

G is the main verb, D is one of interrogative conjunctions (e.g., comment, pourquoi, quand, que, etc.). An example of this dependency may be seen in Figure 74.

**Figure 74**: **interrog**: G= *être*, D= *comment*

Figure 75 shows the same dependency with the copula in a finite form.

**Figure 75**: **interrog**: G= es, D= *comment*

Group VOCATIVE of vocative dependencies

Projective VOCATIVE dependency vocative

G is the main verb, D is a name (usually proper) or an adjective, a pronoun, in pre- or postposition with respect to G. Figure 76 shows a pre-position vocative phrase.

**Figure 76**: **vocative**: G= *vas*, D= *toi*

Figure 77 shows a vocative phrase in post-position. See also Figure 66 (vocative: G= méfie, D= Adam).

**Figure 77**: **vocative**: G= *casse*, D= *con*

Nominal dependencies

Group DET of determinative dependencies

Projective DETERMINATIVE dependencies det, det-p

G is a noun, an adjective/past participle or a numeral, D is its determiner (an article, a demonstrative or a possessive pronoun(In French grammar the possessive pronouns, such as mon, votre, are classified as adjectives.)); for det-p, D is a partitive article, e.g. de la. See, e.g., Figure 50 (G= jour D= un), Figure 65 (G= maquis, D= les). Figure 78 illustrates the case where the possessive pronoun son is a determinant of a noun.

**Figure 78**: **det**: G= *café*, D= *son*

In Figure 79 the partitive article de la is used twice (the second time in the reduced form de l'.

**Figure 79**: **det-p**: *G1=* *limonade*, *D1=* *de la*, *G2=* *eau*, *D1=* *de l'*

Group MODIF of noun modifier dependencies

Projective iterated MODIFIER dependency modif

G is a noun, D is an adjective or a past participle accorded with G in gender and number. One may see an example of this dependency in Figure 80.

**Figure 80**: **modif**: G= *vins*, *D1=* *bordelais*, *D1=* *rouges*

Another example is shown in Figure 81.

**Figure 81**: **modif**: G= *quelqu'un*, D= *autre*

DS in Figure 82 illustrates the case where G is a clitic in the standard complement position on the right of the main verb.

**Figure 82**: **modif**: G= en, D= *autres*

Non-projective MODIFIER dependency modif

G is a noun/pronoun, D is an adjective or a past participle accorded with G in gender and number topicalized through the move to the end of the sentence and separated from G by at least one complement of the main verb. One may see an example of this dependency in Figure 153 (G= en, D= rouges, H= a). Another example is shown in Figure 83.

**Figure 83**: Non-projective **modif**: G= *chat*, D= *immobile*, H= *guette*

Cf. the DS in Figure 83 with that in Figure 84, where the same adjective phrase immobile et silencieux is topicalized through the move to the beginning of the sentence, and where the corresponding dependency modif is projective.

**Figure 84**: **modif**: G= *chat*, D= *immobile*

Group ATTR of iterated attributive dependences

Projective iterated ATTRIBUTIVE dependency attr

G is a noun, D is an adjective not accorded with G in gender or number or a preposition (like de, en, à, etc.) governing a noun. In Figure 85 the noun vélo governs through dependency attr the prepositions de (twice), à and avec, and the noun cadre governs through attr the preposition en.

**Figure 85**: **attr**: *G1=* *vélo*, *D1=D2=* de, *D3=* à; *G2=* *cadre*, *D4=* en

See also Figure 149 (attr: G= maison, D= avec).

**Figure 86**: **attr**: G= *maison*, *D1=D2=* en

Compare the dependency structures in Figure 86 and Figure 87, where the same preposition en is dependent on the verb livre through dependency circ and on the noun maison through dependency attr.

**Figure 87**: **attr**: G1 *=maison*, *D1=* en; **circ**: *G2=* *livre*, *D2=* en

Non-projective ATTRIBUTIVE dependency attr

G is a fronted topicalized noun co-referent with a pronoun. D is an adjective, a past participle, a preposition or a relative pronoun separated from G by the main verb H which is the host word for D.

An example illustrating this dependency is shown in Figure 88.

**Figure 88**: Non-projective **attr**: G= *table*, D= en, H= *trouvée*

Another possible analysis is shown in Figure 89.

**Figure 89**: Non-projective **attr**: G= *table*, D= en, H= a

Group REL of relative dependencies

Projective RELATIVE dependency loc-rel

G is a noun/pronoun or an adjective.
Case 1: D is one of relative pronouns que, qui, dont, auquel, etc. governing a relative clause.
Case 2: D= que is the second part of a comparative phrase.

The first case is illustrated by Figures 90, 93 and 94.

**Figure 90**: **loc-rel**: G= *froid*, D= *qui*

In Figures 90 and 91 the relative pronouns subordinate through loc-rel are respectively qui and que.

**Figure 91**: **loc-rel**: G= *lettre*, D= *que*

Cf. the analysis in Figure 91 with that in Figure 92.

**Figure 92**: **coordv**: G= *aimait*, D= *soient*

In Figure 93 the relative pronoun subordinate through loc-rel is dont.

**Figure 93**: **loc-rel**: G= *modèle*, D= *dont*

In Figure 94 is shown the case where the governor in dependency loc-rel is a demonstrative pronoun.

**Figure 94**: **loc-rel**: G= *celui*, D= *qui*

The second case is illustrated by Figure 95. Compare it with Figures 124, 125, 126 where the comparative phrases are discontinuous.

**Figure 95**: **loc-rel**: G= *plus*, D= *que*

Non-projective RELATIVE dependency dist-rel

Case 1: G is the pronoun en.
Case 2: G is a superlative or comparative adjective or a comparative adverb or a demonstrative pronoun.
D is one of relative pronouns, e.g. qui, que separated from G by a noun/adjective H which governs G and serves as the host word for D.

An example illustrating the Case 1 is shown in Figure 96.

**Figure 96**: Non-projective **dist-rel**: G= en, D= *qui*, H= a

Another example of this Case is shown in Figure 97.

**Figure 97**: Non-projective **dist-rel**: G= en, D= à, H= a

Several examples illustrating the Case 2 are shown below: Figure 124 (G= moins, D= que, H= pommes), Figure 125 (G= plus, D= que, H= généreux), Figure 126 (G= plus, D= que, H= dangereux), Figure 128 (G= plus, D= qui, H= avant-gardiste), Figure 157 (G= ce, D= que, H= coeur) and Figure 158 (G= ce, D= que, H= plexus).

Group QUANT of quantitative dependencies

Projective QUANTITATIVE dependency quant

G is a noun or an adjective, D is a numeral. An example of this dependency may be seen in Figure 98.

**Figure 98**: **quant**: G= *passagers*, D= *dix*

Non-projective QUANTITATIVE dependency quant

G is a noun or an adjective, D is a numeral. An example of this dependency may be seen in Figure 99.

**Figure 99**: **quant**: G= en, D= *beaucoup*

In a similar example in Figure 100 this dependency is combined with loc-rel.

**Figure 100**: **quant**: G= en, D= *beaucoup*

Another example is shown in Figure 101 in which we also show another example of the non-projective modifier dependency modif.

**Figure 101**: **modif**: G= en, *D1=* *comme \c{c*a

Group QUANTIF of quantifier dependencies

Projective QUANTIFIER dependency quantif

G is a noun, D is a quantifier adjective or a quantifier pronoun (e.g., aucun, tout). See Figure 102.

**Figure 102**: **quantif**: G= *tempêtes*, D= *toutes*

Group SELECT of selective dependencies

Projective SELECTIVE dependency select

G is an adjective (quantifier, superlative), a numeral, a pronoun (e.g., lequel, auquel, duquel, celui, etc.). D is one of the prepositions: dans, d'entre, de, parmi, pour, sur.

**Figure 103**: **select**: G= *cinq*, D= *sur*

In Figures 103 and 104 are shown structures where G is a numeral.

**Figure 104**: **select**: G= *six*, D= *d'entre*

In Figure 105 is shown one more structure where the governor through select is a pronoun.

**Figure 105**: **select**: G= *nul*, D= *parmi*

Compare the analysis in Figure 105 with that in Figure 106, where n' is subordinate to jamais and not to nul.

**Figure 106**: **select**: G= *nul*, D= *parmi*

Figure 107 illustrates the case where the governor through select is an adjective.

**Figure 107**: **select**: G= *certains*, D= de

Group RESTRICT of restrictive dependencies

Projective RESTRICTIVE dependency restrict

G is a noun/pronoun, an adjective, a participle, a verb in infinitive, a comparative adverb or a preposition.
Case 1: D is a restrictive adverb (e.g. aussi, exclusivement, même, seulement, surtout, plus, moins, non). See, e.g., Figure 2 (restrict: G= fort, D= très), Figure 93 (restrict: G= cher, D= trop) and also Figure 108 where G is a preposition.

**Figure 108**: **restrict**: G= à, D= *seulement*

In Figure 109 is shown an example of this dependency for an adjective.

**Figure 109**: **restrict**: G= *réglementaires*, D= *non*

Case 2: D is pronoun que which is the categorematic part of the restrictive negation ne ... que. Figure 110 illustrates this case with G being a preposition.

**Figure 110**: **restrict**: G= à, D= *qu'*

Figure 111 illustrates case 2 with G being a verb in infinitive.

**Figure 111**: **restrict**: G= *commencer*, D= *que*

Case 3: This is a special case, where D is a measure noun (fois, pour cent, euros, etc.). This case is illustrated by the structure in Figure 112.

**Figure 112**: **restrict**: G= *plus*, D= *euros*

Another example may be found in Figure 121 (restrict: G= plus, D= fois).

Non-projective RESTRICTIVE dependency restrict

G is a numeral, D is a restrictive adverb (e.g. aussi, exclusivement, même, seulement, surtout, plus, moins, non). An example of this dependency is shown in Figure 113.

**Figure 113**: **restrict**: G= *cinquante*, D= *en tout*

One more example is shown in Figure 114.

**Figure 114**: **restrict**: G= *100*, D= *de moins*

Group CORREL of correlative dependencies

Projective CORRELATIVE dependency correl

Case 1: G is a noun, D is one of prepositions à or par. In Figure 115 is shown the case, where D is à.

**Figure 115**: **correl**: G= *kilomètres*, D= à

In Figure 116 is shown an example of the case where D= par.

**Figure 116**: **correl**: G= *euros*, D= *par*

Another example in Figure 117 illustrates the case D= par when the governor G is a noun which has a pronominalized argument.

**Figure 117**: **correl**: G= *heures*, D= *par*

Cf. this example with that in Figure 118, where the preposition par is dependent through dependency attr.

**Figure 118**: **attr**: G= *transport*, D= *par*

In Figure 119 is shown an example where this dependency is related to an aggregate.

**Figure 119**: **correl**: G= *heures*, D= *par*

Case 2: G is a currency name (e.g., euro) and D is a noun. An example illustrating this case is shown in Figure 120.

**Figure 120**: **correl**: G= *euros*, D= *kilo*

Group APPROX of approximative dependencies

Projective APPROXIMATIVE dependency approx

G is a numeral and D is an adverb with an approximative meaning (e.g., `au plus', exactement, `plus ou moins', précisément, presque, `près de'). This dependency may be found in Figure 121.

**Figure 121**: **approx**: G= *deux*, D= *presque*; **restrict**: *G1=* *plus*, *D1=* *fois*

Group COMPAR of comparative dependencies

Projective COMPARATIVE dependency compar

G is a noun/pronoun, an adjective, a numeral, an adverb, or a preposition, D is the first word of a comparative construction (e.g. si, aussi, autant, moins, plus de, le plus, etc.).

Figure 122 shows the case where the adverb plus is subordinate through comparative dependency.

**Figure 122**: **compar**: G= *pommes*, D= *plus*

Compare this example with that in Figure 123 where plus is subordinate through dependency quant.

**Figure 123**: **quant**: G= *pomme*, D= *plus*

In Figures 124, 125, 126, 128 are shown non-projective comparative constructions with subordinate comparative adverbs.

**Figure 124**: **compar**: G= *pommes*, D= *moins*

In Figure 124 the comparative adverb is subordinate to a noun with the partitive article.

**Figure 125**: **compar**: G= *généreux*, D= *plus*

In Figure 125 the comparative adverb is subordinate to an adjective. A similar example is shown in Figure 126.

**Figure 126**: **compar**: G= *dangereux*, D= *plus*

Compare this example with that in Figure 127 where n' is the syncategorematic part of restrictive negation.

**Figure 127**: **restrict**: G= *dangereux*, D= *plus*

In Figure 128 is shown a discontinuous superlative comparative construction.

**Figure 128**: **compar**: G= *avant-gardiste*, D= *plus*

Figure 129 shows an example of comparative dependency, where the subordinate comparative conjunction comme is in post-position with respect to the governor.

**Figure 129**: **compar**: G= *belle*, D= *comme*

Projective COMPARATIVE dependency conj-comme

G is the comparative conjunction comme, D is a noun or a pronoun, an adjective or the main verb of a clause. Figure 130 shows an example of this dependency, where G is subordinate to a copula.

**Figure 130**: **conj-comme**: G= *comme*, D= *neuve*

Figure 131 shows another example, where G is a circumstantial modifier of a verb.

**Figure 131**: **conj-comme**: G= *comme*, D= *sou*

See also Figure 129 (conj-comme: G= comme, D= paradis) where the governor is a noun modifier.

Projective COMPARATIVE dependency conj-que

G is the comparative conjunction que, D is a noun, an adjective or the main verb of a clause. See Figure 95 (conj-que: G= que, D= d'habitude), Figure 124 (conj-que: G= que, D= de), Figure 125 (conj-que: G= que, D= autres).

Group APPOS of appositive nominal dependencies

Projective APPOSITIVE dependency appos

G is a noun/pronoun, D is a word in apposition with G, e.g., de Gaulle in président de Gaulle, Adam in Toi, Adam. See Figure 76 (appos: G= toi, D= vieux). appos may be recursive as it shows Figure 132.

**Figure 132**: **appos**: *G1=* *président*, *D1=* *Bill*, *G1=* *Bill*, *D1=* *Clinton*

Non-projective APPOSITIVE dependency appos

Appositive dependencies may also be non-projective. In this case they have the same properties of G and D. As to the host word H, it may be the main verb and also the head of a nominal phrase. In Figure 133 is shown one such case.

**Figure 133**: **appos**: G= *idée*, D= *espoir*, H= *occupait*

Group COPRED of co-predicative dependencies

Projective CO-PREDICATIVE dependency copred

G is an antecedent (anaphoric/cataphoric) pronoun, D is the locally co-referential word. An example of this dependency is shown in Figure 134.

**Figure 134**: **copred**: G= il, D= *fêtard*

One more example is shown in Figure 135.

**Figure 135**: **copred**: G= je, D= *moi*

Non-projective CO-PREDICATIVE dependency copred

G is an antecedent (anaphoric/cataphoric) pronoun, D is the co-referential word separated from G by the main verb which is the host word H. An example of this dependency is shown in Figure 136.

Compare another example of non-projective dependency copred in Figure 137 with the example of projective copred in Figure 135.

**Figure 137**: **coref**: G= je, D= *moi*

Prepositional Dependencies

In general, the dependencies in this group relate prepositions with the governed noun, pronoun, adjective or numeral. The majority of them correspond to four of six main semantic object cases: g (genitive), d (dative), l (locative) and o (oblique) (i.e. all but n (nominative) and a (accusative)).

Group PREPOS of prepositional dependencies

Projective CASE PREPOSITIONAL dependencies prepos-C

In these dependencies, G is a preposition in one of the four cases C above, D is the governed noun, pronoun, adjective or numeral.

Even if the case is not morphologically marked in French, there is a simple criterion of its definition:
(i) French clitics mark for the cases a, g, d and l \footnote{a is here of no concern because it is not marked with a preposition.} ;
(ii) D is subordinate to the preposition G through dependency prepos-C, where C is g, d or l if D can be pronominalized using a clitic in case C;
(iii) otherwise, D is subordinate to G through one of dependencies prepos-o, prepos-A (agentive dependency) or prepos-sel (selective dependency).

Dependency prepos-d is shown in Figure 138.

**Figure 138**: **prepos-d**: G= *aux*, D= *satisfactions*

Compare the structures in Figures 138 and Figure 139.

**Figure 139**: **clit-3d-obj**: G= *consacre*, D= *leur*

Dependency prepos-g is shown in Figure 140.

**Figure 140**: **prepos-g**: G= de, D= *bière*

Compare the structures in Figures 140 and Figure 99, 100.

Dependency prepos-l is shown in Figure 141.

**Figure 141**: **prepos-l**: G= à, D= *gare*

Compare the structures in Figures 141 and Figure 142.

**Figure 142**: **clit-l-obj**: G= *arrive*, D= y

Dependency prepos-o is shown in Figure 143,

**Figure 143**: **prepos-o**: G= *avec*, D= *pince*

in Figure 144

**Figure 144**: **prepos-o**: G= *en tant que*, D= *Président*

and in Figure 145

**Figure 145**: **prepos-o**: G= *d'ici*, D= *jours*

\indent For prepos-d, see also: Figure 12 (G= à, D= tout), Figures 108, 110 (G= à, D= Adam).

For prepos-g, see also: Figure 14 (G= de, D= scandale), Figure 15 (G= de, D= foule), Figure 85 (G1= de, D1= course; G2= de, D2= taille; G1= d', D1= aluminium), Figure 98 (G= de, D= avion), Figure 124 (G= de, D= poires).

For prepos-l, see also: Figure 16 (G= au, D= milieu), Figure 21 (G= en, D= 2001).

For prepos-o, see also: Figure 17 (G= sur, D= moi), Figure 26 (G= de, D= route), Figure 31 (G= avec, D= savon), Figure 78 (G= sans, D= sucre), Figure 85 (G= avec, D= cadre), Figure 86, 87 (G1= en, D1= bois; G2= en, D2= kit), Figure 149 (G= avec, D= portes).

Projective AGENTIVE PREPOSITIONAL dependency prepos-A

In French this dependency is marked for with the passive voice.
G is one of the prepositions de (d', des, du) or par (de is used when the subject doesn't undergo the action expressed by the participle).

Case 1: G is subordinate to a past participle through dependency Agent, D is a noun or a pronoun expressing the semantic agent. See Figure 8 (G= par, D= CRS) and Figure 34 (G= par, D= qui). In Figure 146 one can see the case G= de.

**Figure 146**: **prepos-A**: G= de, D= *filles*

Case 2: G is subordinate through dependency Agent to a verb in infinitive, which itself is subordinate to the light verb faire. This case is illustrated by Figure 9 (prepos-A: G= par, D= CRS).

Projective SELECTIVE PREPOSITIONAL dependency prepos-sel

G is one of the prepositions with selective semantics, as for instance, d'entre, de, des, parmi, sur, etc., D is a word (a noun, an adjective, a numeral, a pronoun) which references a set serving as the domain of selection.

In Figure 147 one may find this dependency in the case where D is a numeral.

**Figure 147**: **prepos-sel**: G= *sur*, D= *vingt*

Figure 148 shows this dependency in the case where D is a pronoun.

**Figure 148**: **prepos-sel**: G= *d'entre*, D= *eux*

Aggregation Dependencies

In CDGFr, only verb forms are coordinated through dependencies in the group COORD. All other coordinated forms are related through aggregation dependencies and are separated by junctions and punctuation markers subordinate through dependency aggr-conj. Semantically, they constitute an aggregate, a group of homogeneous or opposed elements (the opposition, if any, is expressed by the separator junctions).

Group AGGR of aggregation dependencies

Projective AGGREGATION dependencies X_aggr

In these dependencies, X is one of categories: n (nominal aggregation), or a (adjectival), or p (prepositional), or num (numeral), or finally, c (circumstantial/aspectual). G is a member of an aggregate of one of these categories and D is the next its member.

The simplest example of nominal aggregation is shown in Figure 7 (n_aggr: G1= Jean, D1= Paul, G2= Paul, D1= Sophie). Another example of this dependency may be seen in Figure 149.

**Figure 149**: **n_aggr**: G= *portes*, D= *toit*

Nominal aggregates may also express semantic ``non-membership'' as in Figure 150.

**Figure 150**: **n_aggr**: G= un, D= *autre*

They may also be mixed, positive - negative, as in Figure 151.

**Figure 151**: **n_aggr**: *G1=* *sergent*, *D1=* *capitaine*; *G2=* *capitaine*, *D2=* *chef*

By the way, compare this structure with that in Figure 172. This sentence is ambiguous.

In Figure 152 is shown an adjectival aggregate.

**Figure 152**: **a_aggr**: G= *jaunes*, D= *rouges*

An example of a numeral aggregate is given in Figure 153.

**Figure 153**: **num_aggr**: G= *cinq*, D= *six*

We show two examples of prepositional aggregates in Figures 154 and 155.

**Figure 154**: **p_aggr**: *G1=* du, *D1=* de; *G2=* de, *D2=* de

Prepositions may be different as in Figure 154 or the same as in Figure 155.

**Figure 155**: **p_aggr**: G= *pour*, D= *pour*

Compare the analysis in Figure 155 with that in Figure 156, in which a nominal aggregate is used in the place of a prepositional aggregate.

**Figure 156**: **n_aggr**: G= *toi*, D= *moi*

In Figure 157 is given an example of a prepositional aggregate broken by a displaced clause.

**Figure 157**: **p_aggr**: G= *avec*, D= *avec*

This example may be compared with that in Figure 158, where the clause does not break the aggregate.

Non-projective AGGREGATION dependency aggr

This dependency is used in the aggregates split in two parts by a word not belonging to the aggregate. G is the last member of the first fragment of the aggregate, D is first member of the second fragment of the aggregate. G also serves as the host word for D (i.e. G=H).

An example of this dependency is shown in Figure 159.

Expletive and Emphatic Dependencies

Group EXPLET of expletive dependencies

Projective EXPLETIVE (parenthetical) dependency explet

G is a verb, D is the head of a parenthetical clause or phrase (une incise).

**Figure 160**: **explet**: G= *vont*, D= *jure*

In Figure 160 is shown the case where the parenthetical phrase follows the main clause.

**Figure 161**: **explet**: G= *sont*, D= *ma foi*

The case where a parenthetical clause splits the main clause is illustrated by Figure 161. The case of a parenthetical noun phrase is illustrated by Figure 162.

**Figure 162**: **explet**: G= *est*, D= *bon sang*

Non-projective EXPLETIVE (parenthetical) dependency explet

G is a verb. D is the head of a parenthetical clause or phrase. It may be anchored on the main verb or on one of its complements. Examples of this dependency may be seen in Figure 181 (G= signe, D= dit, H= ordre) and in Figure 182 (G= donne, D= dit, H= accord).

Group EMPHAT of emphatic dependencies

Projective EMPHATIC dependency emphat

G is the main verb, D is an emphatic conjunction, such as que, et, or an interjection, like ah bah, allez, attention, or an emphatic adverb, such as: ainsi, à savoiretc. Figure 163 shows an emphatic conjunction.

**Figure 163**: **emphat**: G= es, D= *que*

Figure 164 shows an emphatic adverb.

**Figure 164**: **emphat**: G= *coûtera*, D= *par ailleurs*

Projective INTERROGATIVE-EMPHATIC dependency qu-emphat

G is an interrogative conjunction (e.g., comment, o\`u, pourquoi, quand, que, qui, etc.), D is an emphatic post-positive composite lexical unit est ce que or est ce qui. One example is shown in Figure 165.

**Figure 165**: **qu-emphat**: G= *qu'*, D= *est ce que*

A more complex example is shown in Figure 166.

**Figure 166**: **qu-emphat**: G= *qu'*, D= *est ce que*

Projective JUNCTION-EMPHATIC dependency junc-emphat

G is a junction (e.g., ensuite, et, mais, même, ou, par ailleurs, par conséquent, par contre, etc.), an adverb or an interjection (à savoir, attention, alors, au contraire, surtout, contrairement, bah, etc.) or a noun or a personal pronoun like toi. D is an emphatic pre- or post-positive junction or adverb, for instance: aussi que, autant que, comme, et, mais, moins que, ou, plus que, que.

An example of this dependency is shown in Figure 76 (G= toi, D= et). One more example is shown in Figure 167.

**Figure 167**: **qu-emphat**: G= *ainsi*, D= et

Junction and Punctuation Dependencies

Group JUNC of junction dependencies

Projective VERB JUNCTION dependency coord

G is a verb and D is a junction separating coordinated verbs, like comma (`,'), et, mais, ou, etc. The junctions dependent on verbs through coord may not have a right dependent `junction specifier' dependent through junc-spec. So in such combination as et au contraire, au contraire becomes a left circumstantial modifier of the next coordinated verb. On the contrary, the coordinated nouns (see below) are separated by junctions dependent through junc. These junctions may have a right dependent `junction specifier'.

See Figures 36, 47, 48, where the coordinated verbs govern junctions through coord. For instance, in Figure 47, G1= planter, D1= `,', G2= aroser, D1= et.

Projective NONVERBAL JUNCTION dependency junc

The subordinate through this dependency D is always a junction like et, mais, ou, ainsi que, au meême titre que, etc. or a punctuation mark (`,′, `:', `-'). These junctions may have a right junction specifier subordinate through dependency junc-spec.
As to the governor, there may be at least the following three cases :
Case 1. G is an adjective, an adverb or a preposition subordinate to a word through circ, conj-comme, aggr-conj or compar.
Case 2. G is an adjective or a pronoun subordinate through modif or X_copul.
Case 3. G is a preposition or a pronoun subordinate through attr or X-rel.
Figure 168 illustrates case 1. It is also an example of dependency structure with both dependencies junc and junc-spec.
Figure 169 is an example of case 2. Finally, Figure 170 is an example of case 3.

**Figure 168**: **junc**: *G1=* *pour*, *D1=* et; **junc-spec**: *G2=* et, *D2=* *surtout*

**Figure 169**: **junc**: G= *joli*, D= *`,'*

**Figure 170**: **junc**: G= *d'o\`u*, D= *`,'*

Projective JUNCTION SPECIFIER dependency junc-spec

G is a nonverbal junction (et, mais, ou, etc.), D is an adverb strengthening or specifying it (e.g., alors, `au contraire', `au moins', aussi, etc.). See Figure 171 (junc-spec: G= et, D= surtout) and also the example in Figure 172.

**Figure 171**: **junc**: *G1=* *capitaine*, *D1=* *`,'* *G2=* *chef*, *D2=* et

**Figure 172**: **junc-spec**: G= *mais*, D= *pas*

Projective AGGREGATION-JUNCTIVE dependency aggr-conj

G is a member of an aggregate, D is a separator conjunction or a punctuation mark. All examples of aggregates above also show this dependency aggr-conj. For instance, in Figure 150 (aggr-conj: G1= un, D1= ni, G2= autre, D2= ni), in Figure 151 (aggr-conj: G= chef, D= mais).

Projective CITATION JUNCTIVE dependency cit

cit serves to relate verbs with a punctuation mark or a junction separating the verb from a cited clause or sentence or even a number of sentences cited as a whole unit.
G is the verb, D is the punctuation mark / junction.

In Figure 173 and in Figure 174 we show the case where D is on the right of G.

**Figure 173**: **cit**: G= *demandé*, D= *`:'*

In the former, the cited sentences are complete, in the latter they collapse to a vocative proper name.

**Figure 174**: **cit**: G= *appelle*, D= *`:'*

In Figure 175 D is on the left of G.

**Figure 175**: **cit**: G= *dis*, D= *que*

Group PUNCT of punctuation dependencies

Projective PUNCTUATION dependencies

There are twelve main punctuation dependencies in CDG of French: @fs: full stop, @qu: question mark, @xl: exclamation mark, @cl: colon, @ds: dash, @sc: semicolon, @dq: double quote, @lp: left parenthesis, @rp: right parenthesis, @cg: left chevron, @cd: right chevron, @cm: comma. Above, we have seen many examples using the dependencies @fs, @qu, @xl, @cm. There are also two more general dependencies lpar (left marker) and rpar (right marker) which serve to mark out direct speech, citations or lexical units with figurative meaning:
For lpar: G is the head of the marked construction (a verb, a noun) and D is the left chevron or the double quote or the dash.
For rpar: G is either the same as for lpar or it is the left chevron (double quote or dash). D is the right chevron or the double quote or the dash.

Below we show several dependency structures in which these punctuation dependencies mark for apposition and direct speech. First, we show continuous (i.e. not split by expletive clauses) intra-sentential citations/direct speech. Then we will show discontinuous constructions.

Figure 176 illustrates the general way of marking out continuous direct speech or citations. In this example, the left chevron depends on the main verb through dependency a-obj whereas the corresponding right chevron depends on it through rpar.

**Figure 176**: **a-obj**: *G1=* *annonce*, D1 is the left chevron; **rpar**: G2 is left chevron, D2 is right chevron

The order may also be is inverse as it is shown in Figure 177.

**Figure 177**: Citation preceding the main verb

Citations/direct speech may also be marked out using double quotes and dashes. Moreover, it may also be just separated by commas (see examples in the next Subsection).

The next examples illustrate the use of parenthesis dependencies. In Figure 178 illustrates left parenthesis dependency @lp and right parenthesis dependency @rp marking out a phrase in apposition to a common noun.

**Figure 178**: **@lp**: G= *code*, *D1=* *`('*; **@rp**: *D2=* *`)'*

In Figure 179 is shown a similar example where the phrase marked out by parentheses is in apposition to a proper name.

**Figure 179**: **@lp**: G= *Président*, *D1=* *`('*; **@rp**: *D2=* *`)'*

A more complex example is shown in Figure 180, where parentheses mark out several appositive phrases related between them through aggregate dependencies.

**Figure 180**: Combination of aggregation and appositive dependencies

PUNCTUATION dependencies in discontinuous citation/direct speech

Direct speech and citations may also be split by an incorporated expletive clause introduced using the non-projective dependency explet as it is shown in Figure 181 where the direct speech is marked out by chevrons.

**Figure 181**: **lpar**: *G1=* *signe*, *D1=* *left chevron*; **rpar**: *G2=* *signe*, *D2=* *right chevron*

Cf. the analysis shown in Figure 182 where the direct speech is marked out by double quotes.

**Figure 182**: Direct speech in quotes including an expletive phrase

Moreover, discontinuous citations and direct speech may be just separated by commas as it is shown in Figure 183.

**Figure 183**: Non marked direct speech split by an expletive phrase

Special dependencies

GROUP PREFIXA of prefix-attributive dependencies

Projective PREFIX-ATTRIBUTIVE dependency pre-attr

G is an adverb or an adjective, D is a prefix adverb (like co-, ante-, contre-, quasi-) joined to G with the dash. A typical example of this dependency is shown in Figure 184.

**Figure 184**: **pre-attr**: G= *proposition*, D= *contre-*

GROUP DEICT of deictive dependencies

Projective DEICTIC Dependency deict

G is a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, a numeral or an adjective, D is one of two attached deictic pronouns -ci or -là.

In Figure 185, one can see the case where the governors are demonstrative pronouns.

**Figure 185**: **pre-attr**: *G1=* *celle*, *D1=* *-ci*, *G2=* *celui*, *D2=* *-là*

In Figure 186 is shown the case where the governor is a noun.

**Figure 186**: **pre-attr**: G= *compte*, D= *-là*

Aknowledgements

It is my pleasure to thank Danièle Beauquier for numerous influencing discussions of many of these dependencies and dependency structures and Denis Béchet for sharing much practical work on this text and especially for implementing the advanced linguist's interface of CDG Lab. Without them, this document would hardly ever be completed.

References

Denis Béchet, Alexander Dikovsky, and Ophélie Lacroix. “CDG Lab”: an Integrated Environment for Categorial Dependency Grammars and Dependency Treebanks Development. In Computational Dependency Theory. IOS Press, 2013. See also Proc. of the Int. Conf. on Dependency Linguistics (Depling’2011), Barcelona, Spain, 2011.
Michael Dekhtyar and Alexander Dikovsky. Generalized categorial dependency grammars. In Trakhtenbrot/Festschrift, LNCS 4800, pages 230–255. Springer, 2008.
Alexander Dikovsky. Structural Bootstrapping of Large Scale Categorial Dependency Grammars. In Computational Dependency Theory. IOS Press, 2013. See also Proc. of the Int. Conf. on Dependency Linguistics (Depling’2011), Barcelona, Spain, 2011.
I. Mel’cuk. Dependency Syntax. SUNY Press, Albany, NY, 1988.
Lidija Iordanskaja and Igor Mel’cuk. Surface-syntactic relations: Valence-controlled surface dependents of the verb in French. In Alain Polguière and Igor Mel’cuk, editors, Dependency in linguistic description, pages 151–234. John Benjamins Publishing Compagny, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2009.
Karel van den Eynde and Piet Mertens. La valence: l’approche pronominale et son application au lexique verbal. Journal of French Language Studies, 13:63–104, 2003.

CDGFr Nomenclature of Surface Syntactic Dependencies

Alexander Dikovsky

LINA CNRS UMR 6241, Université de Nantes

Short Introduction

Notation

Verbal Dependencies

Group PRED

Projective PREDICATIVE dependency pred

Group AGENT

Projective AGENTIVE dependency agent

Non-projective AGENTIVE dependency agent

Group OBJ of objective dependencies

Projective OBJECTIVE dependencies C-obj

Projective OBJECTIVE dependency a-obj-g

Projective ∀-OBJECTIVE dependency qa-obj

Non-projective OBJECTIVE dependencies C-obj

Group CLIT of clitic dependencies

Projective CLITIC dependencies clit-C-obj

Projective NULL CLITIC dependency 0-clit-g

Non-projective NULL CLITIC dependency 0-clit-g

Non-projective CLITIC dependencies clit-C-obj

Group AUX of auxiliary dependencies

Projective AUXILIARY dependency aux

Projective AUXILIARY dependencies aux-C, aux-C1-C2, aux-C-A

Group COPUL of copulative dependencies

Projective COPULATIVE dependencies n_copul, a_copul, c_copul

Projective COPULATIVE dependency clit-copul

Group INF of infinitive dependencies

Projective PREPOSITIONAL INFINITIVE dependency pre-inf

Projective INFINITIVE dependency inf

Projective INFINITIVE dependencies inf-C, inf-C1-C2, inf-A, inf-C-A

Group COORDV of iterated verbal coordinative dependencies

Projective VERBAL COORDINATIVE dependencies coordv, coordpz, coordi

Group GER of gerundive dependencies

Projective GERUNDIVE dependency dep-ger

Group NEG of negative dependencies

Projective NEGATIVE dependencies neg, compos-neg, neg-emphat

Non-projective NEGATIVE dependencies compos-neg, restr-neg

Group REFLEX of reflexive dependencies

Projective REFLEXIVE dependency reflex

Non-projective REFLEXIVE dependency reflex

Group CIRC of circumstantial dependencies

Projective CIRCUMSTANTIAL dependency circ

Group CLAUS of clausal dependencies

Projective CLAUSAL dependency claus

Group INTERROG of interrogative dependencies

Projective INTERROGATIVE dependency interrog

Group VOCATIVE of vocative dependencies

Projective VOCATIVE dependency vocative

Nominal dependencies

Group DET of determinative dependencies

Projective DETERMINATIVE dependencies det, det-p

Group MODIF of noun modifier dependencies

Projective iterated MODIFIER dependency modif

Non-projective MODIFIER dependency modif

Group ATTR of iterated attributive dependences

Projective iterated ATTRIBUTIVE dependency attr

Non-projective ATTRIBUTIVE dependency attr

Group REL of relative dependencies

Projective RELATIVE dependency loc-rel

Non-projective RELATIVE dependency dist-rel

Group QUANT of quantitative dependencies

Projective QUANTITATIVE dependency quant

Non-projective QUANTITATIVE dependency quant

Group QUANTIF of quantifier dependencies

Projective QUANTIFIER dependency quantif

Group SELECT of selective dependencies

Projective SELECTIVE dependency select

Group RESTRICT of restrictive dependencies

Projective RESTRICTIVE dependency restrict

Non-projective RESTRICTIVE dependency restrict

Group CORREL of correlative dependencies

Projective CORRELATIVE dependency correl

Group APPROX of approximative dependencies

Projective APPROXIMATIVE dependency approx

Group COMPAR of comparative dependencies

Projective COMPARATIVE dependency compar

Projective COMPARATIVE dependency conj-comme

Projective COMPARATIVE dependency conj-que

Group APPOS of appositive nominal dependencies

CDGFr
Nomenclature of Surface Syntactic Dependencies